Category: psychology assignment

Q3

Anorexia

  • In your own words, explain the symptoms of the disorder you have identified.
  • Briefly explain the etiology of this disorder; be specific.
  • Based upon your perceptions as to the etiology, provide some specific current treatment options.
  • On the Internet, find at least one organization that would be an excellent resource for clients or family members who suffer from this disorder. Briefly discuss what the organization provides and make sure to list the URL and the name of the organization.

Treatment Overview

Prior to beginning work on this discussion, read the required chapters from the text and review the required articles for this week. Over the course of the past weeks, we have considered the use of medications in the treatment of various psychological disorders. This discussion will provide you with an opportunity to give an informed appraisal on the use of drugs to treat disorders and defend your stance based on your judgment of the literature. In your initial post, describe what you believe are the greatest strengths and weaknesses of using the medications to treat psychological disorders.  Evaluate the employment of psychoactive drugs in the treatment of disorders over the lifespan from both an ethical and risk-benefits perspective. Summarize the theories of psychiatric disease and the scientific rationale behind its treatment through the employment of drug therapies. Explain what you believe to be the greatest challenges in the use of psychoactive medications over the next several years. Support your statements with references and logical arguments.

Topic 6 DQ 1

Research on the relation between religion and prejudice is well summarized by Gordon Allport: “The role of religion is paradoxical. It makes prejudice and it unmakes prejudice.” In your opinion, do you agree, and, if so, why might this be true? If you do not agree, explain your reasoning.

Topic 6 DQ 2

Prejudice has traditionally been assumed to be the product of some form of malice, brought about by social or emotional forces. In recent years, however, there has been increasing research on how prejudice can result from cognitive processes, without malicious intent. Discuss how and why cognitive processes can produce prejudice. Once stereotypes and prejudices are formed, how do they come to be self-perpetuating?

Benchmark – Implicit Prejudice

The Implicit Association Test (IAT) is a popular and respected method for measuring implicit attitudes and beliefs. Take a test of your choosing, and respond to the following questions regarding your experience.

  1. Describe which test you took and your results.
  2. Discuss if your results surprise you. Why or why not?
  3. Interpret the results. Do you think they are valid for you personally?
  4. Reflect on the results of your test and your own implicit bias, briefly explain the causes of prejudicial attitudes and discriminatory behaviors you may have seen in others. Do you see similarities or difference between your bias and others potential bias.
  5. Consider the overall validity of the IAT. Do you think this test is a valid and reliable measure of implicit bias? Use scholarly research to back up your claims in this section.
  6. The Implicit Association Test (IAT) is a popular and respected method for measuring implicit attitudes and beliefs. In this exercise, you are to try an IAT (one on racial bias and one on gender bias) for yourself. There are many possible tests available at the Project Implicit website; however tests named “Racial Bias Black/White Adults” and “Gender Bias” will be the most pertinent to this week’s module.

     

    Go to the website: https://implicit.harvard.edu/implicit/

     

    You may register to take the test; our suggestion is that you use the guest setting

     

    Click on “I wish to proceed” at the end of the paragraph.

    Continue following the directions on the screen. If you encounter any concerns please let your instructor know.

    Once you have completed a test return to the assignment directions to finish the assignment for this topic.

Study Of A Life Journey

Study Of A Life Journey

Topic- President John F Kennedy

The final paper reflects a culmination of your learning throughout this course. Choose one of the following two topic categories:

· Your life journey

· The life of a historical figure, such as Florence Nightingale, President John F. Kennedy, Martin Luther King, Ghandi, or Muhammad Ali. (These are just examples; select your example from any period and from any historical category you find meaningful.)

Write a paper on the life journey of you or the person you selected. Your paper should do the following:

· Describe the life journey of the person who is the subject of your study.

· Apply Freud’s, Erikson’s, or Maslow’s theory to discuss and explain the development of the person’s life that is your subject, addressing each of the seven stages listed below.

· Evaluate whether and in what ways the theory has explanatory power for each stage of the life under examination.

· For any life stages for which the theory was unable to adequately explain, model, and/or otherwise cast light on the life, critique those shortcomings of the theory and identify those unique characteristics of the life that explain the divergence between the life and the theoretical conception.

The following stages of life must be included:

· Middle childhood

· Adolescence

· Emerging adulthood

· Adulthood (assuming you or your historical figure has reached 30)

· Late adulthood (if you or your historical figure have reached or did reach that stage).

Writing requirements are:

· 3,000-4,000 words in length

· Support your application and evaluation of the theory to the life with citations from the course textbook and at least four outside peer-reviewed resources.

· Document and citation formatting should adhere to APA style, with the exception that if your study is of your own life, you may write in first person.

discussion post and replies

Respond to the following questions in a minimum of 175 words:

  • Which ideas about functions do you think might be the most helpful to you in your day-to-day planning?
  • Pick one situation from your life (personal, professional, or even academic) that you might be able to use one of the concepts related to functions presented this week. Discuss a specific example from real life, your life. How can the things we are learning this week help you save time or provide additional information for making a decision?

Respond to Sevie and Luke, discussing how their chosen events can be seen in the modern applications of the social sciences. Consider how the events changed how social scientists work today. Additionally, how did the historical developments of the social sciences influence their evolution and uses today? Consider how changes in society led to this event.

The timeline event that I found most interesting was from the History of Psychology Timeline for the year 1908. This is when Clifford Beers had his book A Mind That Found Itself published and it was his first-hand account of his own patient experiences in mental asylums in the 1800’s. I found it remarkable that it took a tell-all exposé book from a patient to shine a light on the deplorable conditions and inhumane treatment for patients. By writing this book, Beers was able to pave the way for more humane treatment and help educate the general public about mental illness, which had always been a taboo subject. According to the timeline entry, “this book inspires the mental hygiene movement in the United States” (Annenberg Learner, n.d.). As a social psychology student, I am interested in learning about this topic. Clifford Beers was able to initiate changes in the general public about how mental illness was viewed. More importantly, he was able to convince psychologists, psychiatrists, and influential government authorities to look more closely into the conditions in mental asylums and the treatment of the patients. This led to eventual changes in processes, treatments, and legislature that helped improve conditions for patients. What I learned from this event is that even just one person can bring about change and that gaining the perspective of stakeholders (in this case, a patient) is invaluable when studying groups.

One of the events I find most interesting is the founding of Alcoholics Anonymous by Bill Wilson and Robert Smith of Akron, Ohio in 1935. In a post-prohibition America at this time, the treatments for those with alcohol dependency issues were much worse due to the lack of knowledge and those who could afford medical or psychiatric help were subjected to a treatment with barbiturate (a nervous system depressant) and belladonna (a poisonous plant) known as the “purge and puke.” When Smith and Wilson met, a conversation that was supposed to last only fifteen minutes ended up lasting over six hours and ultimately led to the beginnings of the concept of AA. To think how many programs use it’s outline now and how many people’s lives it has saved and have benefited from it’s twelve step program to help combat addiction. I think it has been a major impact on how we view and deal with chemical dependencies and mental health issues that has helped keep some of the greatest minds of our time around longer and gave us a deeper understanding as to what drives us to do what we do, think what we think and feel the ways that we feel.

In your responses to Elizabeth and Austin, examine how your views might be similar or different. Use information from the module resources to explain your views. Also, discuss the role of the more complex experiments you learned about this week in conducting sound research that provides clear data.

I believe that experimental research is important in today’s society. It provides information towards many of concepts.

A couple of advantages of experimental research are as follows:

  • When researchers conduct an experimental research, it allows the researcher to be in charge of what is being studied. For example, a study could be conducted on sleep deprivation and workplace effects. In order to receive the best possible results, an experimental research would be the best fit for this scenario.
  • Experimental studies can be performed by many other researchers which gives the results more credibility.
  • Experimental studies can be used in numerous fields such as biology, pharmaceutical, chemistry, physics, and social science.

A couple of disadvantages of experimental research are as follows:

  • Oftentimes, the variables are manipulated to be similar to real world scenarios. This manipulation can cause a variety of results that may not be suitable to real world scenarios.
  • Experimental research can also include errors. For example, people being studied can cause an error by giving false information.
  • The cost of experimental research may be out of reach for many researchers. Oftentimes, a study will be halted because of lack of funding.

Types of research procedures can vary. Some examples of these procedures include surveys, questionnaires, case studies, experimental research and observational research. The way to convey results to an audience may also vary. If the audience is medical professionals, terminology may be used. However, speaking to a crowd that is not familiar with terminology would be practically impossible for the person to understand. For a general public audience, simpler terms would be more of a fit.

I believe experimental research is a gold standard. Experimental research has provided study results over the years that are beneficial and have provided a good bit of information. These studies have been performed over and over.

 

The advantages of an experimental design is having controlled variables, being able to see exact cause and effect, results can be duplicated, and can be combines with other research methods. Some disadvantages are human error, bias-ness, creating unrealistic situations, ethical variables, and extraneous variables that cannot be controlled. Experimental design can be very useful and effective, but might not be the best fitting method.

Observational design is another method that can be used for research questions. Some advantages of an observational design is preventing unbias-ness, no need to create situation, avoiding unethical experiments, and having real life events. Each design method has its own advantages and disadvantage, and so there is no golden standard, it just depends on which design method best suits the needs of the question.

In response to James and Nicholas, assess whether your classmates discussed factors that you had not considered and offer a factor they did not consider.

 

After the readings this week I feel as though marriage will have a very fluid and dynamic interaction with its historical institutional ways. One example of this is the how up until around 1970 women would drop their maiden name in place of their husband’s name (Welsch et al., 2020). This shift signifies a move away from the historical nature of marriage in a way that gave the rights, power, and identity of the woman to her husband. Another aspect of the fluid nature of marriage is how wealth and power are distributed, in the Zulu tribe culture bride’s families are compensated with cattle or wild game(Welsch et al., 2020).  Which has been a tradition of that culture from generations dating back to the domestication of animals. In stark contrast of western societies such as the United States, in today’s culture it is not uncommon for the woman in the relationship to have a higher paying job and in some cases have a higher level of education. Which is a complete departure from the original nuclear family model seen in early pre-world war two America.  As the United States remains in the forefront of the global stage in regard to pop culture, innovation and acceptable social and cultural norms, I think that we as Americas take for granted our ability to choose a partner to marry. This is not the case in may parts of the world. IN many other societies around the world marriage is still used to solidify political, and economic relations between families. For these reason I believe that while in more western countries such as the United States marriage is moving away from the historical model of an intuition practice to one of more choices and with the shift in the perception of same sex marriage a larger various and what both natal and nuclear families look like. With that begin said I do believe that many other societies around the world who and gradually begin absorbed by the globalism in the world marriage as a historical intuition will always have a place

I think in one way or another marriage will continue to exist as an institution. I think as the culture of different areas changes along with demographics marriage will change, but it will never go away. Marriage is a union that unities families and gives structure to family structures and it takes different forms all over the world. In the video “Are five husbands better than one” we saw how different cultures adapted to different marriage arrangements based on a number of things. In parts of the world where woman are sparse we may find marriages with multiple husbands whereas an area with the opposite might have more wives with one husband.

The culture as well as the landscape, religion, and government of an area can all have an affect on how family structures form or work. We even saw how many people changed their marital structure as they got older and realized the current form wasn’t working due to the culture or things like jealousy. “Different people are suited to different marital arrangements” (McKay, 2021) . Unless something cataclysmic happens or something that forces society to give up marriage I think people all over the world will continue to practice it.

Week4/PSY250

PSY/250 v10

Learning Theories Worksheet

PSY/250 v10

Page 2 of 2

 

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Learning Theories Worksheet

Part I: Behavioral Conditioning

Imagine that you are a camp counselor or substitute teacher who is responsible for teaching a group of first-grade children. Respond to the following prompts in complete sentences in approximately 265–440 words.

1. Explain how classical conditioning works differently than operant conditioning. Include an example of classical conditioning that happens at home that could influence a student’s behavior at camp or in the classroom.

 

2. The “Classical and Operant Conditioning” video from the University Library describes several types of behavioral reinforcement. Each type of reinforcement has a different level of effectiveness. Describe how effective each type of reinforcement would be in this scenario:

When the children receive your signal, they will need to be prepared to stop what they’re doing, then listen for directions before moving to the next task.

a. Continuous:

b. Fixed ratio:

c. Variable ratio:

d. Fixed interval:

e. Variable interval:

f. Extinction:

3. How would you apply positive and negative reinforcement in the classroom to prepare them for the behavior in the scenario above?

 

4. Explain the type of reinforcement that would be the most effective to sustain the desired behavior in the scenario from question #2.

 

Part II: Social-Cognitive Learning

Respond to the following prompts in complete sentences in approximately 175–260 words.

1. Summarize the assumptions about human learning and agency that form the basis of social-cognitive theory.

 

2. Explain how you can apply social-cognitive learning theory to your own behavior to become more proactive in improving your self-efficacy and self-regulation skills as you pursue your college education and career path.

 

Copyright 2020 by University of Phoenix. All rights reserved.

Copyright 2020 by University of Phoenix. All rights reserved.

Psychology 3

Current Directions in Psychological Science 2014, Vol. 23(6) 460 –465 © The Author(s) 2014 Reprints and permissions: sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav DOI: 10.1177/0963721414550705 cdps.sagepub.com

People are remarkably varied in their ability to perform under stressful or challenging circumstances and in their tendencies to engage in health-related behaviors. To understand and encourage behavior change, the sources of these individual differences need to be uncovered. This review focuses on the personality dimensions outlined in the Five Factor theory of personality (McCrae & Costa, 2008). Investigations have explored associations between personality traits and performance-related outcomes (e.g., academic and occupational success) and between per- sonality traits and health-related outcomes (e.g., diet and stress). Amid the academic articles available, a consider- able number have centered on personality-trait associa- tions in the context of sport and physical activity. The development of this field originated when researchers started to notice particular traits among athletic adoles- cents (e.g., Fleming, 1934), and their articles tended to emphasize the contribution of athletic behavior to person- ality change. Over time, the focus shifted to consider per- sonality traits as precursors to two core outcomes: sport performance (athletic success) and physical activity (exer- cise participation). We review each of these areas in turn,

focusing on recent advances before considering new research questions and avenues of further study.

Personality in Sport Performance

Personality traits predict a number of performance markers in competitive contexts such as work and academia (see, e.g., Poropat, 2009). Organized sport represents another competitive context in which some personality traits have been found to coincide with greater levels of success. For example, athletes competing in national or international competitions report higher levels of conscientiousness and lower levels of neuroticism than do those competing in club or regional competitions (Allen, Greenlees, & Jones, 2011), and athletes selected for the Paralympic Games report higher levels of tough-mindedness (a component of agreeableness) and lower levels of anxiety (a component

550705CDPXXX10.1177/0963721414550705Allen, LabordeThe Role of Personality in Sport and Physical Activity research-article2014

Corresponding Author: Mark S. Allen, School of Psychology, University of Wollongong, Northfields Avenue, Wollongong NSW 2522, Australia E-mail: mark_allen@uow.edu.au

The Role of Personality in Sport and Physical Activity

Mark S. Allen1 and Sylvain Laborde2,3 1School of Psychology, University of Wollongong; 2EA 4260, University of Caen; and 3Department of Performance Psychology, German Sport University Cologne

Abstract There is now good evidence that athletic success and participation in physical activity can be predicted by personality traits. In this article, we review new studies that have contributed to our understanding of these relationships and outline potential avenues of inquiry to support the development of personality-trait research in exercise and sport. Our review identified a number of novel findings from contemporary studies. In the context of sport performance, new studies have demonstrated that personality traits relate to long-term athletic success, interpersonal relationships, and athletes’ psychological states before, during, and after competitions. In the context of health-related exercise, new studies have demonstrated that personality traits relate to leisure-time sitting time, strength and mobility in old age, and unhealthy (addictive) exercise behaviors. There is also evidence that physical activity contributes to personality change. Our recommendations include a more targeted focus on adolescence (as this is the age of greatest change in personality and sport participation) and a greater consideration of consultant personality traits in applied research and professional practice (given their role in intervention effectiveness).

Keywords exercise participation, Five Factor model, physical fitness, developmental changes, applied psychology

 

 

The Role of Personality in Sport and Physical Activity 461

of neuroticism) than do those not selected for the Paralympic Games (Martin, Malone, & Hilyer, 2011). Longitudinal studies have also found that adolescent ath- letes with particular personality traits are more likely to progress to professional sport (Aidman, 2007) and that adult athletes with high levels of conscientiousness or low levels of neuroticism have more successful performance statistics over the course of a competitive season (Piedmont, Hill, & Blanco, 1999). In particular, Aidman (2007) assessed the personality traits of 32 elite youth athletes and moni- tored their progress over 7 years. The study found that per- sonality traits, in combination with coaches’ ratings of players’ potential, could distinguish those players who had progressed to become professional athletes (n = 13) from those who had withdrawn from participation (n = 19) with 100% accuracy (84% of athletes were correctly classified on the basis of personality traits alone).

To better understand the processes connecting person- ality traits to athletic success, researchers have recently begun to explore associations between personality traits and discrete athletic behaviors. It has been found that sport participants with high levels of conscientiousness use better preparation strategies (Woodman, Zourbanos, Hardy, Beattie, & McQuillan, 2010), take fewer reckless risks (Merritt & Tharp, 2013), and use more effective cop- ing strategies (Kaiseler, Polman, & Nicholls, 2012) before and during athletic competitions. It has also been found that sport participants with high levels of extraversion or low levels of neuroticism respond to unsuccessful out- comes with more positive cognitive and emotional symp- toms (Allen, Greenlees, & Jones, 2014) and that sport participants with high levels of agreeableness or conscien- tiousness report more favorable relationships with their teammates ( Jackson, Dimmock, Gucciardi, & Grove, 2010) and coaches ( Jackson, Dimmock, Gucciardi, & Grove, 2011). Little is known about how personality traits contrib- ute to aggressive or unethical behavior or how they might relate to important choices or clinical symptoms between competitions (e.g., eating disorders, doping). Nevertheless, the studies available might go some way toward explain- ing why conscientious athletes and athletes with low neu- roticism tend to be more successful.

The relationship between personality and athletic suc- cess is often thought of as unidirectional—the general assumption being that personality traits cause some indi- viduals to perform better or worse in athletic situations. However, it is also possible that athletic success, and the life changes that accompany this success, contribute to personality change. There is evidence from occupational settings that career success permeates personality change and, in particular, contributes to increases in levels of extraversion (Le, Donnellan, & Conger, 2014). This is because success in occupational roles often accompanies changes in interpersonal activities (e.g., greater leadership

behavior) that might challenge personality stability in adulthood. In athletic settings, success can also generate greater interpersonal activities, but, more importantly, it can lead to considerable income and media attention (e.g., changes in privacy, adoration by fans), and it remains unclear how these factors might contribute to personality change. We can speculate that the additional life stress that coincides with these factors might, under certain cir- cumstances, contribute to undesirable changes (e.g., increases in neuroticism). Longitudinal studies are needed to explore bidirectional associations and potential mod- erator variables (e.g., social support) during important personal or career transitions (e.g., the transition from amateur to professional athlete).

Personality in Health-Related Exercise

Physical inactivity has been identified as the fourth lead- ing risk factor of global mortality, causing an estimated 5.3 million deaths each year (Lee et al., 2012). It is there- fore unsurprising that psychologists are targeting the identification of factors associated with participation in regular exercise. There is now good evidence that per- sonality traits relate to physical-activity levels. For exam- ple, new studies of adult sitting behavior have shown that low levels of conscientiousness, extraversion, and open- ness and high levels of neuroticism predict a greater occurrence of leisure-time sitting time (Ebstrup, Aadahl, Eplov, Pisinger, & Jørgensen, 2013). Comprehensive meta-analyses have also demonstrated that high levels of extraversion and conscientiousness and low levels of neuroticism relate to high levels of physical activity (Rhodes & Smith, 2006; Stephan, Boiché, Canada, & Terracciano, 2014). In particular, industriousness (a com- ponent of conscientiousness) and activity (a component of extraversion) are often identified as important physi- cal-activity correlates (Rhodes & Pfaeffli, 2012).

The majority of research on personality and physical activity has targeted young adults. More recently, there has been a shift toward understanding physical-activity levels across the life span. Studies have demonstrated that older adults with high levels of extraversion have greater muscular strength (Tolea, Terracciano, et al., 2012) and that individuals with high levels of extraver- sion, openness, or conscientiousness or low levels of neuroticism record greater energy expenditure at peak walking pace (Terracciano et al., 2013). Importantly, a 3-year longitudinal study of older adults (mean age = 75) found that high levels of conscientiousness related to a faster initial walking speed and a slower decline in walk- ing speed over the course of the study (Tolea, Costa, et al., 2012), and a 6-year follow-up found that high lev- els of openness related to a reduced risk of acquired walking limitations (Tolea, Ferrucci, et al., 2012). It has

 

 

462 Allen, Laborde

also been found that positive attitudes toward aging mediate a positive association between openness and levels of physical activity (Emile, Chalabaev, Stephan, Corrion, & d’Arripe-Longueville, 2014) and that high neu- roticism relates to low levels of physical activity, but only when education levels are particularly low ( Jaconelli, Stephan, Canada, & Chapman, 2013).

The identification of important mediating and moder- ating variables has been a central focus in studies of behavior change. In their systematic review, Rhodes and Pfaeffli (2012) identified 17 studies that had explored mediating relationships—most often components of the theory of planned behavior (Ajzen, 2012)—and found evidence for a partial mediation of attitudes toward exer- cise and perceived behavioral control in the relationship between extraversion and levels of physical activity. Studies have also explored demographic variables that might moderate the relationship between personality traits and exercise behavior and the personality traits that might moderate associations between psychological states and behavior change. Associations between per- sonality dimensions and physical-activity levels appear relatively consistent across age groups, culture, gender, and activity modes (Rhodes & Pfaeffli, 2012), but there is evidence that exercise intentions are more strongly related to exercise behavior when levels of conscien- tiousness are particularly high (Rhodes & Dickau, 2013).

It is customary for association studies to consider per- sonality traits as precursors to physical-activity levels despite the bidirectional associations theorized in earlier articles (e.g., Fleming, 1934). Until recently, the potential for exercise participation to contribute to changes in per- sonality remained unclear. However, a recent longitudi- nal study of personality change in adulthood found that physically active adults declined less on conscientious- ness, extraversion, openness, and agreeableness than did less physically active adults (Stephan, Sutin, & Terracciano, 2014). These initial findings suggest that an active life- style might help to prevent undesirable personality change and support original proposals that personality traits are shaped through exercise participation. The pro- cesses through which this occurs are unknown, but the authors speculated that physical activity might help to maintain desirable personality traits by lowering the inci- dence of cognitive decline or facilitating better coping responses to adverse life events.

The benefits of regular physical activity are well estab- lished. However, excessive exercise can have adverse effects, including depression, body-image concern, and disordered eating behavior (Berczik et al., 2012). New lines of research have begun to uncover the personality traits that relate to unhealthy (obsessive and compulsive) exercise behavior. Studies have found that high levels of neuroticism, extraversion, and conscientiousness and low levels of agreeableness relate to exercise addiction

(Andreassen et al., 2013; Lichtenstein, Christiansen, Elklit, Bilenberg, & Støving, 2014), with excitement seeking (a component of extraversion), achievement striving (a component of conscientiousness), and straightforward- ness and compliance (components of agreeableness) fea- turing the strongest associations (Lichtenstein et al., 2014). These findings indicate that people who are sus- ceptible to exercise addiction might be identifiable through personality-trait profiling, which has implica- tions for the early identification and treatment of this clinical disorder.

Moving Forward

The studies reviewed so far have provided some interest- ing perspectives on personality-trait associations in sport and physical activity. The greater focus on older adults has been an important development in the field—as have the greater use of longitudinal designs and variations in out- come measures (e.g., leisure-time sitting time, energy expenditure). In terms of research progression, the field might benefit from a more targeted focus on adolescent populations. In the context of sport performance, research- ers might explore behavior-change interventions that tar- get continued participation in sport among adolescents who have great athletic potential but personality traits associated with a high risk of drop-out. In the context of health-related exercise, researchers might explore changes in personality traits throughout adolescence and their rela- tionship to changes in exercise motives. Longitudinal designs that target bidirectional associations might help to explain the shift from environmental to genetic influences on sport participation (Aaltonen, Ortega-Alonso, Kujala, & Kaprio, 2013) and the decline in exercise participation throughout adolescence (Kimm et al., 2002).

Adolescence is a critical developmental stage during which we observe not only the greatest changes in levels of physical activity (Hallal et al., 2012) but also the great- est changes in personality (McAdams & Olson, 2010). There is reason to consider that these associations might not be mutually exclusive. Studies have found that sport participation contributes to the development of impor- tant life skills (Gould & Carson, 2008) and long-term health-related quality of life (Vella, Cliff, Magee, & Okely, 2014). Through sport participation, adolescents gain con- fidence, learn new physical capabilities, develop impor- tant social relationships, develop leadership skills, and gain satisfaction by working toward goals (Gould & Carson, 2008). It is reasonable, therefore, to consider that sport participation might contribute to personality change during adolescence. A critical question is whether differ- ent modes of physical activity have similar effects on per- sonality change. For instance, team sports combine physical activity with high levels of social interaction, whereas individual sports often combine high levels of

 

 

The Role of Personality in Sport and Physical Activity 463

physical activity with low levels of social interaction. It would be interesting to explore the potential differences between activity modes in their effects on personality sta- bility and change during adolescence.

The role of personality in sport teams and exercise groups has received little empirical attention. In other (non- athletic) settings, it has been found that greater variation among group members in some personality traits (e.g., extraversion) and greater similarity in others (e.g., agree- ableness) relate to more successful group performances (e.g., Kramer, Bhave, & Johnson, 2014). Similar associations might be observed in team sports, and this could have implications for applied practice in terms of selecting or deselecting players to fit the needs of a particular team or competition. In physical-activity settings, people often choose to take part in structured (group) exercise classes, and individual behavior in these contexts (e.g., adherence levels) might also depend on the personality traits of other class members. For example, adherence levels might be higher when the group as a collective (or the group leader) scores highly on desirable personality traits (e.g., extraver- sion) or when the target person has personality traits simi- lar (or dissimilar) to those of other group members.

Personality similarity is one potential contributing fac- tor to adherence levels in exercise programs, and this extends beyond other members of the exercise class to the personality traits of the consultant or service provider administering the physical-activity intervention. Consultants are often responsible for recruiting participants into behavior-change interventions and monitoring their prog- ress. It is reasonable to expect that clients’ engagement and commitment to behavior-change recommendations might be contingent on their interactions with their ser- vice provider (e.g., relatedness) and that these interac- tions are conditioned by personality traits (Cuperman & Ickes, 2009). Psychologist–client personality similarity is considered an important factor in turning intentions into behavior (Bare, 1967), and researchers would do well to consider the personality traits of consultants when design- ing and implementing physical-activity interventions and evaluating their success. As far as we are aware, the per- sonality traits of service providers have not featured in studies of behavior change that have targeted leisure-time physical activity. To critically evaluate intervention suc- cess, it is important to consider all potential moderator variables, and these include the personality traits of the people delivering the interventions.

Conclusions

The available evidence shows that sport performance and physical-activity levels can be predicted by personality traits. Conscientiousness and neuroticism appear to be most important for athletic success, and these associations

seem to mirror those observed in other performance contexts (e.g., academic and occupational success). Personality-trait dimensions also relate to interpersonal relationships in athletic dyads and can predict athletes’ psychological states before, during, and after competi- tions. Little is known about the contribution of athletic success to personality change or how personality-trait similarities among team members relate to group success. In the context of physical activity, extraversion and con- scientiousness (and, to a lesser extent, neuroticism) pre- dict physical-activity levels in nonclinical samples. These dimensions also relate to strength and mobility in older adults and, along with agreeableness, can predict unhealthy (addictive) exercise behavior. Importantly, new research has suggested that leisure-time physical activity can contribute to personality change during adulthood. We recommend additional longitudinal studies that explore bidirectional associations between personality traits and various modes of physical activity. This informa- tion would be particularly valuable to researchers pursu- ing the various environmental factors that contribute to personality-trait development, and might also be of value to health professionals targeting the promotion of physi- cal activity and healthy living in developed nations.

Recommended Reading

Allen, M. S., Greenlees, I., & Jones, M. V. (2013). Personality in sport: A comprehensive review. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 6, 184–208. A detailed narrative review of personality in sport performance that includes population-based differences and issues in applied practice.

Jackson, B., Dimmock, J. A., Gucciardi, D. F., & Grove, J. R. (2011). (See References). An investigation of personality- trait contributions to relationship commitment and relat- edness in coach-athlete dyads that explores actor effects, partner effects, and actor–partner similarities.

Rhodes, R. E., & Pfaeffli, L. A. (2012). (See References). A sys- tematic review of the relationship between personality traits and participation in physical activity that explores facet-level relationships and moderator variables including age, culture, and physical-activity mode.

Stephan, Y., Sutin, A. R., & Terracciano, A. (2014). (See References). A longitudinal study of the relationship between physical-activity levels and personality stability and change during adulthood and old age.

Tolea, M. I., Costa, P. T., Terracciano, A., Ferrucci, L., Faulkner, K., Coday, M. M. C., . . . Simonsick, E. M. (2012). (See References). A longitudinal investigation of personality and walking-speed decline in older adults using data from the Health, Aging and Body Composition study.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The authors declared that they had no conflicts of interest with respect to their authorship or the publication of this article.

 

 

464 Allen, Laborde

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